All cultures begin as oral cultures. Even those who are borninto highly literate or even post-literate culture spend their early lives in a primarily oral community. However for most members of a literate society textuality always stands in the background of all oral communication. Ong suggests that it is almost impossible for the members of a text-based culture to imagine and portray an oral culture accurately and meaningfully (Ong, 11). Throughout this presentation we will be making comparisons between oral, scribal textual and secondary oral cultures, but we need to be particularly aware of our own difficulty of imagining and reproducing an oral culture.

This presentation will focus on three characteristics of oral cultures:

Although this clip shows men interacting in a group situation. I would suggest that it evidences few is any of communication techniques Ong says is typical of oral cultures. After watching the entire movie I was surprised that not a single formula passes the lips of any of the characters. Rather each statement is a short concise summary of the speaker's thought.

Sumerian Epic

Moving back to the beginning of recorded time. Our next example is from the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was written down in the first centuries of the second millennium B.C.E, antedates the Homeric epic b y at least 1500 years (Sanders, 7-8). It may be the oldest written story and thus it is one of the first to make the move from a purely oral medium to the new chirographic one. As such it should exhibit many of the thought patterns of a oral culture.

This is the story of human hero in search of the meaning of life and death. Because Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu have insulted the gods in various ways Enkidu dies and Gilgamesh goes in search of the secret of everlasting life. Along the way he arrives at the home of Siduri who bars the door against him. In this selection we hear Gilgamesh introducing himself to her. Again listen for the marks of orality: exteriority vs. interiority, formulaic speech patterns, communal interaction.

"...I am Gilgamesh who seized and killed the Bull of Heaven, I killed the watchman of the ceder forest, I overthrew Humbaba who lived in the forest, and I killed the lions in the passes of the mountain.'

Then Siduri said to him, 'If you are Gilgamesh who seized and killed the Bull of Heaven, who killed the watchman of the ceder forest, who overthrew Humbaba who lived in the forest, and killed the lions in the passes of the mountain, why are your cheeks so starved and why is your face so drawn? Why is despair in your heart and your face like the face of one who has made a long journey? Yes, why is your face burned from heat and cold, and why do you come here wandering over the pastures in search of the win d?'

Gilgamesh answered her, 'And why should not my cheeks be starved and my face drawn? Despair is in my heart and my face is the face of one who has made a long journey, it was burned with heat and cold. Why should I not wander over pastures in search of the wind? My friend, my younger brother who seized and killed the Bull of Heaven and overthrew Humbaba in the ceder forest, my friend who was very dear to me and who endured dangers beside me, Enkidu my brother, whom I loved, the end of mortality has overtak en him. I wept for him seven days and nights until the worm fastened on him. Because of my brother I am afraid of death, because of my brother I stray through the wilderness and cannot rest.' (Sanders, 100-101)

Here we can see several of our characteristics. The formulaic repetition is particularly apparent. The audience actuality exists on two levels: this is a conversation between Gilgamesh and Siduri but it is also an epic meant to be performed in a bardic tr adition similar to that of Homer. Finally, we notice that Gilgamesh's current mental state is indicated by his "starved checks and drawn face" while his mourning for his friend Enkidu is evidenced by his weeping, his refusal to release the body for burial and now his wandering in the wilderness. Although he fears the death that has overtaken Enkidu nowhere does he indicate any remorse for killing the Bull of Heaven and overthrowing Humbaba although these are two of the many reasons that the gods decreed t he death of Enkidu and the despair of Gilgamesh. Nowhere in this epic can we find the kind of self-examination common in contemporary novels, rather the narrative is foregrounded, expressing all thought and a feeling in action and external appearance.

African Novel

Our final example is from a novel of the twentieth century Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe. Achebe was raised in what was primarily an oral society. When he writes about his people, the Igbos, he has them speak and think in the ways of orality. His novels are renowned for their rich mixture of proverbs, folk tales, songs and chants. Although some of these are created by Achebe, most of these are traditional Igbo.

In this excerpt from Arrow of God. the chief priest has been summoned by the English District Officer. Before deciding if he should answer the summons he calls together the men of the village. After telling his story and asking for the advice of the other men in the village, his principle rival responds. Again listen for the marks of orality: exteriority vs. interiority, formulaic speech patterns, communal interaction. Also notice the subtle agonistic nature of the exchange between the two men.

Then he told them the story of the Court Messenger's visit to him. "My kinsmen," he said in conclusion, "that was what I woke up this morning and found. Ogbuefi Akuebue was there and saw it with me. I thought about it for a long time and decid ed the Umuaro should join with me in seeing and hearing what I have seen and heard; for when a man sees a snake all by himself he may wonder whether it is an ordinary snake or the untouchable python. So I said to myself: Tomorrow I shall summon Umuaro and tell them. Then one mind said to me: Do you know what may happen in the night or at dawn? That is why, although I have no palm wine to place before you I still thought I should call you together. If we have life there will be time enough for palm wine. U nless the penis dies young it will surely eat bearded meat. When hunting day comes we shall hunt in the backyard of the grass-cutter. I salute you all."

For a long time no one stood up to reply....At last Nwaka of Umunneora stood up....

"When a father calls his children together he should not worry about placing palm wine before them. Rather it is they who should bring palm wine to him. Again I say thank you to the priest of Ulu. That he thought it necessary to call us and tell us these things shows the high regard in which he hold us, for which we give him our thanks.

"But there is one thing which is not clear to me in this summons. Perhaps it is clear to others; if so someone should explain it to me. Ezeulu has told us that the white ruler has asked him to go to Okepi. Now it is not clear to me whether it is wrong for a man to ask his friend to visit him....Or does Ezeulu think that their friendship should stop short of entering each other houses? Does he want the white man to be his friend only by word of mouth? Did not our elders tell us that as soon as we shake han ds with a leper he will want an embrace? It seems to me that Ezeulu has shaken hands with a man of white body." This brought low murmurs of applause and even some laughter. Like many potent things from which people shrink in fear leprosy is nearly always called by it more polite and appeasing name-white body....

"What I say is this," continued Nwaka, "a man who brings ant-ridden faggots into this hut should expect the visit of lizards. But if Ezeulu is now telling us that he is tired of the white man's friendship our advice to him should be: You tied the knot, yo u should also know how to undo it. You passed the shit that is smelling; you should carry it away. Fortunately the evil charm brought in at the end of a pole is not too difficult to take outside again." (Achebe, 143-144)

This excerpt exemplifies a different way that oral societies use formulaic constructions* in their arguments. Here each proverbs carries the argument forward, not by linear logic but by remind the audience of the common kn owledge each has and can use to help in the decision-making. Proverb is piled upon proverb until the irrefutable logic of Nwaka's proverbs prevail. This group of men will continue to share such proverbs until a consensus appears.

They do not so much make a decision as birth agreement. We can also see other elements of orality in the calling together of the men of the village in order to formulate a response to an unusual event.

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