1. Comparatives
1.1 Basic Noun Phrase
The basic form for a comparative noun phrase in Luo is Noun + Adjective. For example:
There is no structural difference between this construction and a regular Noun + Adjective construction.
(1) guOk maduON
dog bigger
'a bigger dog'
1.2 Comparative Predication
1.2.1 /ne/
A comparative predication often includes the form /ne/ 'than' when making a comparison between two things. Here is the construction using /ne/:
Subject + Adjective/Property + /ne/ + Object/Standard of ComparisonThis example is the long form, according to our consultant. It is also possible to fuse the /ne/ to the bound pronominal object in spoken Luo, such as in the following example:
(2) a - tIn ne in
1SG-small than 2SG
'I am smaller than you.'
It is possible to combine /ne/ with a possessive construction containing /mar-/. For example:
(3) a - tIn n -i
1SG-small than-2SG
'I am smaller than you.'
In Example (4), both the subject and the object of comparison are possessed entities. The fact that 'you' have a dog -- and one that is smaller than 'my' dog -- is understood through the /mar-/ construction.
(4) guog -a duoNg ne mar -i
dog -1SG big than of -2SG
'My dog is bigger than your dog.'
1.2.2 /moloyo/
The other type of comparative predication involves the verb /loyo/, 'to surpass, defeat.' It is very common in African languages to use a verb of surpassing in forming the comparative. This verb can be both transitive and intransitive, with both lexical and pronominal subjects and objects (as applicable). Here are some examples of it being used as a main verb:
Example (7), though, reveals one difference between /loyo/ and the typical Luo verb: there is both a lexical and a pronominal subject marked. We are still investigating the significance of this phenomenon.
(5) a -loyo
1SG-surpass
'I come first / I win.'
(6) a -loy -E
1SG-surpass -3SG
'I defeat/beat him/her.'(7) dicuo o -loyo guOk
man 3SG-surpass dog
'The man defeats/surpasses the dog.'
In a comparative sentence, /loyo/ changes a little; it becomes /ma o-loyo/, or, in the more common shortened form, /moloyo/. There are two possible ways to describe this comparative form: as a relative clause or as an adjectival/participial clause. In the case of the relative clause, /moloyo/ can be translated as 'the one who surpasses/the one who is a surpassor.' This is the general construction using /moloyo/ using the explanation of the relative clause:
Subject + Adjective/Quality + /moloyo/ + Object/Standard of ComparisonIn the following example, the longer form of /moloyo/ is used. Often our consultant would draw out things that would usually be more concise to facilitate our elicitations.
By virtue of the definition of a relative clause, there must be an entity by which something is predicated -- and it is often a head noun. Because Luo can turn certain properties into verbs when a bound pronominal prefix is added (see discussion of property constructions in 1.2.3), /O-bor/ is not a noun but a complete clause. Thus, it would be improbable to somehow label /O-bor/ as a head noun; it is obviously not one. But if you take the essence of /O-bor/ and translate it as 'his tallness...' instead, there is a head noun. Therefore, it is possible to reference the relativizer /ma/ to this noun and satisfy the rules of a relative clause. The literal translation of (8) would be: '[He is tall] his tallness which surpasses this girl.' This explanation is consistent with the way /ma/ is used in other contexts in Luo -- as a relativizer.
(8) O-bor ma o -loyo nyako-no
3SG-big REL 3SG-surpass girl -this
'He is taller than this girl.'
I also want to note that in Luo the compared quality is carried throughout the sentence even if it does not lexically appear again. That is, in Example (8), it is implied that it is the girl's tallness that we are comparing. It is not necessary to reiterate /bOr/ in reference to the girl.
Here is another example:
This example has both a lexical subject and object. In most cases of predicated comparisons with /moloyo/, the verb form /moloyo/ is transitive because Luo wants to compare the subject to something and not just leave the comparison ambiguous. /moloyo/ can occur with pronominal subjects and objects, too. For example:
'(9) olEmo - na ber moloyo olEmo - ni
fruit -1SG.POSS pretty surpass fruit - 2SG.POSS
'My fruit is prettier/looks better than your fruit.'
Example (10) has both a pronominal subject and lexical object, and /moloyo/ is in the longer form because Rose was emphasizing its parts for a clearer elicitation. Example (11) has a bound pronominal object, and the final /-o/ of /moloyo/ disappears. In accordance with the pattern for transitive verbs, the /-o/ does not appear with singular object pronouns and is optional with plural ones (such as in Example 19 below).
(10)
o-bOr ma o -loyo nyako-no
3SG-tall REL 3SG-surpass girl -that
'He is taller than that girl.'(11)
o -bOr moloy -E
3SG-tall surpass-3SG
'He is taller than her.'
The other way to explain the presence of /ma/ is to label /ma/ + property an adjectival participle. That is, the /ma/ causes the following /o-loyo/ to become a participle: 'surpassing.' This explanation would lead to a revision of Example (8):
A literal translation of (12) would be: 'He is tall, surpassing this girl.' This explanation eliminates the problem of the lack of a head noun for the relative clause because when there is a participle, it can refer back to just the subject-part of the initial clause.
(12) o-bOr ma o -loyo nyako-no
3SG-big ADJ 3SG-surpassing girl -this
He is taller than this girl.
As I am not totally satisfied with either of these explanations, I will continue to gloss /ma/ as a relativizer for the sake of consistency.
1.2.3. Property Concepts
Many comparisons involve property concepts. It is possible to express property concepts as verbs or adjectives. Both lexical and bound pronominal subjects can be used. The most prototypical type of property concept is something that is actually a property, such as size. This is the general construction:
Subject + Property + Comparison Marker + ObjectBut other things can be expressed as properties in Luo, such as states of being and activities, when they are plugged into this construction. I will begin with examples of the most prototypical type -- basic properties. For example:
The properties /bOr/ and /Nwan/ can be adjectives in Luo, but they can also be expressed as verbs when they are conjugated, as they are in Examples (13) and (14).
(13) a -bOr moloy -i
1SG-tall surpass-2SG
'I am taller than you.'(14) o -Nwan moloy -E
3SG-kind surpass-3SG
'He is kinder than her.'
In a less prototypical sense, perceptual states can be expressed as verbs. The following sentences present perceptual states:
Example (15) implies that the taste, though either good or bad, is something; in Luo it would be something tasting good. Example (16) suggests that something weighs either a lot, or a little, but something. I would suggest that, semantically, it makes more sense for this something to be heavy. That which these sentences imply is the property of the comparative construction. Below are some examples of this aspect of property concepts:
(15) o -mEt
3SG-taste
'It tastes.'(16) o -pEk
3SG-weigh
'It weighs.'
The final type of property concept construction involves activities where the compared quality is an adverb. For example:
(17)
olEmo -na mEt moloyo olEmo-ni
fruit -1SG.POSS taste surpass fruit -2SG.POSS
'My fruit tastes better than your fruit.'
(18)
bugE-ni pEk moloyo bugE -no
book-this weigh surpass book-that
'This book weighs more/is heavier than that book.'
In general, there are few examples of plural pronominal objects in the data. The form /ne/ can be used in addition to /moloyo/ in comparisons involving a property, hence 'Comparison Marker' rather than only /moloyo/. I will discuss the use of /ne/ and /moloyo/ together in the next section.
(19) wa-riNgo ma -piyo moloy -gI
1PL-run REL-fast surpass-3PL
'We run faster than them.'
1.2.4. /ne/ and /moloyo/
Most examples in the data use only /moloyo/ in the comparison. The only time /ne/ is used is in talking about size, and in a few of these cases, /moloyo/ follows /ne/. There are only five instances of /ne/ (in conjunction with size) in all the data. For example:
In Example (21), Rose said that the /ne/ is optional. Yet it seems that when it is definitely present, it forces /duONg/ to mean 'older than,' but when it is only optional, it means 'bigger than.' As the following example shows, when only /ne/ is present, and /moloyo/ is absent, /duONg/ means 'older than.'
(20) olEmo-na duONg ne moloyo olEmo-ni
fruit -1SG.POSS big than surpass fruit -2SG.POSS
'My fruit is older (lit. bigger) than your fruit.'
(21) olEmo-na duONg (ne) moloyo olEmo-ni
fruit -1SG.POSS big (than) surpass fruit -2SG.POSS
'My fruit is bigger than your fruit.'
Apparently this one word, /duONg/, is polysemous, and the choice of comparison marker is affected by its meaning.
(22) nyaTi -na duONg nyaTi -ni
child-1SG.POSS big child-2SG.POSS
'My child is older than your child.'
Examples (2) and (3) are the final two of the five comparatives regarding size. Both of them lack /moloyo/.
2. Superlatives
The general form for the superlative construction is:
Subject + Quality + /moloyo/This form is can also be translated as 'I am taller,' which is the intransitive comparative construction, but through context, it must be obvious what the speaker means. An example of a context-based superlative sentence follows:
(23) a -bOr moloyo
1SG-tall surpass
'I am the tallest.'
Because of /ji-te/, it is apparent that this sentence should be interpreted as a superlative construction. It is common within the superlative construction to employ a relative clause and a copula to make superlative predication. This is the structure:
(24) a -nyalo cik -Ora malo moloyo ji -te
1SG-can jump-REFL up surpass people-all
'I can jump the highest of all people.'
Subject + /e-ma/ + Quality + /moloyo/Compare (25) with (26) to see the difference between the predication and no predication:
(25) an e -ma bOr moloyo
1SG COP-REL big surpass
'I am the tallest person.'
Example (26) has the superlative statement in the subject; it is an equative where 'Rose' is in the predicate. There is a relative clause beginning with /ma/ that adds description to the subject /Nat/ 'person.' Example (25) has the superlative statement in the predicate; this is the superlative predication. To predicate a superlative, it is necessary to use a free pronoun (or other noun, I suppose) and a linker or copula between the free pronoun and the characteristic /bOr/ 'big/tall.' That copula is the /e-/.
(26) Nat ma -bOr moloyo En Rose
person REL-big surpass 3SG Rose
'The tallest person is Rose.'
Example (27) shows that this superlative construction works with adverbs, too. Also, there is a verb /wOiyo/ inserted into the superlative construction; it is not bound to equative statements.
(27) an e -ma wOiyo ma-lEr moloyo
1SG COP -REL speak clear surpass
'I speak the clearest.'
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