Anthropology 220/History 220 CONTEMPORARY CHINESE CULTURE (Spring 1998)
CONTEMPORARY CHINA: A BRIEF GLOSSARY (12/20/97)
Abbreviations: APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation CCP Chinese Communist Party CITIC China International Trust and Investment Corporation CMC Central Military Commission GMD Guomindang KMT Kuomintang (alternative spelling of Guomindang) MFN Most-Favored Nation NPC National People's Congress PLA People's Liberation Army PPP Purchasing Power Parity PRC People's Republic of China PSB Public Security Bureau ROC Republic of China SEZ Special Economic Zine WTO World Trade Organization
Note: Most primary entries in this glossary employ the pinyin system of transliteration. Exceptions (cross-referenced) include Chiang Ching-kuo, Chiang Kai-shek, Lee Teng-hui, Sun Yat-sen and Kuomintang.
Anti-Rightist Campaign. A widespread purge and persecution of alleged counterrevolutionaries launched by Mao Zedong in 1957. The campaign occurred in response to the Hundred Flowers Campaign--Mao's effort in 1956 to solicit constructive criticism of the CCP that resulted instead in an unleashing of virulent condemnation of the chairman and the party. The anti-rightist campaign, which was meant to silence critics of the re-gime, affected millions of people in nearly every walk of life, but hit intellectuals particularly hard.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). An organi-zation, formed in 1989 as the result of an Australian initiative, that brings together the countries of the Asia-Pacific region (in-cluding the United States and Canada) to discuss economic is-sues of common concern. APEC has a small headquarters office in Singapore and holds annual ministerial-level meetings.
Autarky. National economic self-sufficiency and minimal involvement in the global economy. To a large extent, Mao pur-sued a policy of autarky under the rubric of "self-reliance," which was dramatically reversed by Deng Xiaoping's efforts to open China's economy to the outside world.
Autonomous Regions. see "National Minorities"
Basic Law. This document, adopted by China's National People's Congress in April 1990, serves as the "constitu-tion" for Hong Kong since its "return" to Chinese sovereignty on July 1, 1997. The Basic Law consists of a preamble, nine chap-ters, and several annexes; it describes, among other things, the relationship between the Hong Kong Special Administrative Re-gion (SAR) and the central government in Beijing, the rights and duties of SAR residents, and the structure of the SAR government.
Bourgeois. A pejorative term used to denote a capitalist outlook. Often the word carries the connotation of "decadent!"
Cadre. Any person in a position of official authority or responsi-bility in the PRC. Top-ranking officials, often called "leading cadres" (lingdao ganbu) are distinguished by their positions of high administrative authority. Not all cadres are party members; nor are all party members cadres.
Central Committee. The organization that directs party affairs when the National Party Congress is not in session. However, the large size (about 300) and infrequent meetings (called plenary sessions, or plenums) of the full Central Committee mean that real power is vested in smaller top-level party organiza-tions like the Politburo and its Standing Committee. The General Secretary of the Central Committee is the formal head of the party, the position of chairman having been abolished in 1982.
Central Military Commission (CMC). There are, in theory, two separate Central Military Commissions--a state CMC and a party CMC. According to the PRC constitution, the state CMC commands the nation's armed forces and is responsible to the National People's Congress. In practice, the state CMC is firmly under CCP control. Although the precise relationship between the two CMCs is ambiguous, they have complete personnel and functional overlap.
Centrally Planned Economy. A type of socialist economic sys-tem in which government decisions rather than market forces, such as supply and demand, are the major determinants of production, prices, resource allocation, and other aspects of a nation's economy. Under Deng Xiaoping, China has moved since the late 1970s from a centrally planned economy to what is now called a "socialist market economy" that combines both planning and market forces, with the latter playing an increas-ingly large role.
Chen Yun (1905-1995). One of China's top political leaders for many decades. Chen was an architect of the PRC's 5oviet-style First Five-Year Plan (1953-57) and was influential in restoring order to the economy after the disastrous Great Leap Forward (1958-60) Although at times a close associate of Deng Xiaoping, he became a critic of market-oriented economic reform and was con-sidered to be a leader of the conservative faction within the CCP.
Chiang Ching-kuo (Jiang Jingguo; 1910-1988). Late president of the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan and head of the Guomindang. The son of longtime Guomindang leader, Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975), Chiang Ching-kuo became premier of the RCC in 1972 and president in 1978. In the last two years of his life, he initi-ated many domestic political reforms and conciliatory policies toward mainland China.
Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi, 1887-1975). A military leader, trained in Russia. In 1928 Chiang Kai-shek became chairman of the GMD and head of the ROC government in Nanjing, and he remained the leader throughout the civil war. In 1949 the GMD govern-ment on the mainland collapsed; Chiang and his followers re-treated to Taiwan.
China International Trust and Investment Corporation (CITIC). A gigantic quasi-official conglomerate made up of numerous affiliated enterprises in China and around the world. Its holdings include banks, factories, real estate, trading companies, power stations, mines, and railways. CITIC was established in the late 1970s by Rong Yiren (b. 1916).
Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The ruling party of the People's Republic of China. The CCP was founded in 1921 and won national power in 1949 after defeating the Guomindang (Guomindang) in a civil war that lasted more than two decades. In the mid 1990s, the party had about 57 million members. According to the most recent Chinese Communist Party Constitution (1982), the CCP is "the vanguard of the Chinese working class," representing "the interests of the people."
Class Struggle. A concept central to the Marxian notion of historical progress; the motive force behind change. In each stage of history, society polarizes into two major antagonistic classes which struggle for supremacy. In the capitalist stage, for example, the conflict revolves around the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Not a popular concept in China today after the horrors of the Cultural Revolution.
Collective. This term refers to economic enterprises originally established in the 1950s and abolished for the most part in the 1980s which might have as few as three or four to as many as several hundred (or in the case of communes, tens of thousands of) members. They were sanctioned by the state but not owned by it (cf. State Enterprises). The members of the collective were considered to be the joint owners, responsible for distributing profits after paying taxes to the government and taking care of their own welfare and management expenses.
Commune. A large-scale rural collective, corresponding roughly in geographical spread to a traditional marketing network (several villages clustered around a market town or zhen). People's Communes were established as part of the Great Leap Forward (see below) in the late 1950s and they continued to exist in various forms until the early 1980s, at which time they were abolished and replaced by the profit-driven household responsibility system. The problem with the communes was that they offered little incentive for maximum output. Peasant producers earned "workpoints," for various tasks, the value of which depended on the total value of goods and services produced by the commune in a given year (i.e., total output divided by the total number of workpoints earned by all members of the collective). The problem with this system was that workpoints were allocated without regard for the amount of labor put forth. There was thus no economic incentive for higher productivity.
Comrade (tongzhi, lit., of the same will or ambition). An officially encouraged, gender-neutral term used by members of Chinese society to refer to one another.
Confucianism. A social philosophy based on the teachings of Confucius (c. 551-479 B.C.) and his disciples and interpreters. Confucianism stresses hierarchy and harmony in human rela-tions, deference to one's superiors, benevolence to one's inferi-ors, and the primacy of the group (family, state, and society) over the individual. Confucianism, which still exerts a strong influence on the cultures of East Asia, was the core of the ideol-ogy that legitimized imperial China's autocratic political order and its patriarchal and highly stratified society.
Contradictions. The Chinese use this term to indicate competitive or conflicting relationships between any two aspects of nature or human society. Class struggle, for example, represents a contradiction between the interests of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. "Antagonistic" contraditions can only be resolved through struggle; "non-antagonistic" contradictions, on the other hand, can be resolved through discussion and debate. Examples of "non-antagonistic" contradictions might include the competing needs of the urban and rural sectors of Chinese society or disputes among "the people" (as opposed to between antagonistic classes. Cf. the "Ten Major Relationships" and "Three Major Differences.")
County. The lowest national unit of administration in contemporary China. There are about two thousand counties in China, most of which are similar in size and population to counties in the United States. They are represented in government by indirectly-elected County Congresses.
Cultural Revolution. Launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 to eradicate elitism, bureaucratism, "feudalism" and "bourgeois ideas" in the party, government, and society at large. Known at the time as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, this massive movement created havoc and destruction for three years, before it was officially declared at an end in 1969. This stage was marked by the radical-ism of the Red Guards--millions of high school and university students who took it as their mission to purge China of all ideo-logically impure influences. Hundreds of thousands of people died as a direct result of their persecution, and millions of others suffered severe physical and psychological abuse during this period. After 1969 power remained in the hands of the so-called Gang of Four, whose radical policies prevailed until Mao's death and their arrest in 1976. The Cultural Revolution is therefore considered to have spanned the period from 1966 to 1976.
Dalai Lama. The title of the spiritual and temporal leader of Tibetan Buddhism. The current Dalai Lama (b. 1935), the 14th in a line traced back to the 16th century, fled Tibet in 1959. He lives in exile in India, travels widely, and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989.
Democratic Centralism. A concept reconciling the idea of popular democracy with that of party discipline. The party receives input from the masses, formulates a policy in accordance with their expressed wishes, and then demands unwavering obedience to its policy once established. The system is thus democratic going up and centralized going down.
Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997). China's "paramount" leader from 1978 until his death in February of 1997. Deng won international acclaim for introducing market-oriented reforms in China after the end of the Cultural Revolu-tion, but his reputation and popularity both at home and abroad were severely tarnished by his role in the harsh suppression of the Tiananmen protest movement in the spring of 1989. A long-time revolution-ary, Deng was himself purged, first in 1966 and again in 1976, but returned to power shortly after Mao's death. He never held any of the top party or government positions, his highest posts were vice-chairman of the CCP and vice-premier of the PRC; his authority was exercised through more infor-mal means--particularly his deep personal ties to many of the country's most senior political and military leaders. In Novem-ber 1989, Deng retired from his last formal post as chairman of the party's Central Military Commission.
Feudal. A term used in both a technical and a general sense. Technically, it refers to one of the major stages of Marxist history (primitive communist, slave, feudal, capitalist, socialist), in China spanning from the 5th century B.C. to the mid-nineteenth century A.D.--over two thousand years. More generally, it refers to a social system or outlook that is backward, oppressive and exploitive. Most Western scholars are uncomfortable with the technical use of the term feudal, since it applies to such a vast span of Chinese history, including many centuries when China was highly bureaucratized.
Five Guarantees. The five necessities of life, to which all members of Chinese society are entitled. food, clothing, housing, medical care, and burial expenses. These are what the Chinese government considers to be "basic human rights."
Four Modernizations. This phrase, coined in the late 1970s, refers to the modernization of agriculture, industry, science and technology, and national defense. The year 2000 is the target date, by which time the Chinese hope to have achieved a GNP per capita of at least $1,000.
Free Markets. Marketplaces in urban areas where peasants can sell their produce and other commodities (household goods, captured or domestically-raised animmals, etc.). The peasants can usually charge what the market will bear, and bargaining is permitted. This contrasts with the general policy of state stores and most old-style collectives.
Gang of Four. Mao's wife Jiang Qing and her "ultra-leftist" associates, Zhang Chunqiao, Wang Hongwen, and Yao Wenyuan, who have been convicted of a variety of crimes against the state and the Chinese people during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). For their role in promoting "counter-revolutionary activities, including persecuting thousands of officials to death, Jiang and Zhang were given the death penalty (suspended to allow time for rehabilitation); Wang was given life imprisonment; Yao, 20 years. Jiang committed suicide in prison in 1991. Most of China's political, social, and economic problems from 1966-1976 have been blamed on the Gang of Four, although many other people--including Mao--have been implicated in their crimes.
Great Leap Forward. One of Mao's most destructive radical experiments, designed to promote rapid economic development and to move China from socialism into the more egalitarian stage of communism. Launched in 1958, it relied heavily on propaganda and mass mobilization to achieve its ends, which included the establishment of People's Communes and the confiscation of private property down to pots and pans. But by 1960 the Great Leap had failed miserably. Unrealistic production targets, the physical exhaustion of the peasantry, and widespread demoralization and alienation created havoc in the countryside. Some 20-30 million people are said to have lost their lives from disease and starvation between 1958 and 1961. Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi engineered the pragmatic "retreat" from the Great Leap Forward.
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. See Cultural Revolution.
Guanxi. A Chinese term that literally means "connection(s)" or "relationship(s)." It refers broadly to the personal ties between individuals based on such things as a common birthplace, shared educa-tional or military background, or mutual acquaintances. These personalistic relationships play a major role in the politics and economics of China, Taiwan, and other Chinese cultural areas.
Guomindang (GMD; also Kuomintang or KMT). The Nationalist Party, initially organized in 1912 by Sun Yat-sen. The GMD became a major political force in China during the first half of the 20th century. Reorganized by Sun Zhong-shan (Sun Yat-sen) with Soviet assistance in the early 1920s. The dominant party on the Mainland from 1928-1949 and on Taiwan after 1949.
Hegemonism. The effort of one country to dominate others, used with particular reference to the aggressive designs of the Soviet Union until its collapse in 1989.
Hong Kong. A one-time British colony that borders China's Guangdong Province. Britain initially gained control of parts of Hong Kong in the mid-19th century through treaties forced upon the Chinese in the aftermath of the Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1858-1860). Part of Hong Kong (the New Territories) was leased by China to Britain in 1898 for 99 years. The anticipated expiration of that lease set in motion Sino-British negotiations that culminated in the agreement to return all of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty on July 1, 1997. At that time, Hong Kong became a Special Admin-istrative Region of the PRC.
Household Responsibility System. See Responsibility System.
Hundred Flowers Campaign. Mao's effort in 1957 to encourage intellectuals to speak their minds, and to feel free to criticize the party and the government. The outpouring of criticism became too pointed, however, and the intellectuals were suppressed in various campaigns culminating in the Cultural Revolution. The 1957 slogan, "Let a hundred flowers bloom; let a hundred schools of thought contend," was revived during the 1970s as part of the campaign to achieve the Four Modernizations.
Individual Economy. This term is used by the Chinese to refer to what Westerners would call "private enterprise." It is a rapidly growing and therefore increasingly significant sector of the Chinese economy.
Jiang Jieshi. See Chiang Kai-shek.
Jiang Jingguo. See Chiang Ching-kuo.
Jiang Zemin (b. 1926). Former mayor and party secretary of Shanghai who replaced Zhao Ziyang as General Secretary of the CCP in June 1989 in the aftermath of Tiananmen. In November 1989 he took over from Deng Xiaoping as chairman of the party's Central Military Commission and in March 1993 he became president of the People's Republic of China.
Lee Teng-hui (Li Denghui; b. 1923). The first "native Taiwanese" to become president of the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan and head of the Guomindang. Lee is an agricultural economist with a Ph.D. (1968) from Cornell University. He was mayor of Taipei (1978-81), governor of Taiwan Province (1981-84), and vice president of the ROC (1984-88). In 1988, he succeeded to the presidency after the death of Chiang Ching-kuo. As president, Lee furthered the democratization of Taiwan's political system begun by his predecessor. He was reelected in March 1996 in the island's first free presidential election.
Li Denghui. See Lee Teng-hui.
Li Peng (b. 1928). China's premier and a member of the Standing Committee of the CCP's Politburo. Li became premier in 1988, succeeding Zhao Ziyang. He is a hydroelectric engineer by training and studied at the Moscow Power Institute in the 1950s. Considered to be among China's most conservative leaders, Li played a major role in the suppression of the Tiananmen democ-racy movement.
Li Ruihuan (b. 1934). One-time carpenter and former mayor of Tianjin, now a member of the Standing Committee of the Polit-buro and chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consulta-tive Conference. Li is in charge of the CCP's ideological and propaganda work. He is considered a moderate reformer in the Chinese political system.
Liberation. This term refers to the takeover of the Chinese Mainland from the Nationalists under Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek) and the establishment of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. "Liberation" divides "Old China" from "New China."
Liu Huaqing (b. 1916). The oldest and the only military member of the CCP Standing Committee. Liu joined the Red Army in 1930 and was one of the founders of the Chinese navy after the establishment of the PRC in 1949. He studied at a mili-tary academy in the Soviet Union in the mid-1950s. He is also a vice-chairman of the Central Military Commission and a strong supporter of the modernization of China's armed forces.
Long March. This refers to the heroic retreat of the Chinese communists from the Guomindang (Nationalist) "extermination campaigns" of 1931-1934 in Jiangxi province. From October, 1934 to October, 1935, about 100,000 CCP partisans attempted to reach Yanan in north China--only 20,000 or so of whom survived. The Long March serves as a metaphor for human will overcoming all obstacles, since the Chinese communists successfully rebuilt their political and military organization after the March, inspired and instructed by the ordeal. The idea of undertaking a "Long March" to achieve some object has been used several times by the party since the March--most recently in the Four Modernizations campaign.
Mao Zedong (1893-1976). Paramount leader of the Chinese Communist Party for nearly four decades until his death in Oc-tober of 1976. Mao led the CCP to victory against the Guomindang in the Chinese civil war that culminated in the founding of the PRC in October 1949. In addition to his position as chairman of the CCP (which he held until his death), Mao also served as president of the PRC from 1949 until 1959.
Mass Line. Mao's approach to political participation in China, a policy based on the idea of the COP's responsibility to satisfy the needs and desires of the Chinese people ("the masses"). The policy in action is sometimes briefly summarized as "from the masses to the masses."
May 4th Movement. A movement for radical change in China that was sparked by a student-led protest on May 4, 1919, against the provision of the post-World War I Versailles Treaty to give Germany's possessions in China to Japan rather than return them to China. These anti-imperialist protests gave rise to much broader demands for a thorough political, social, and cul-tural transformation of the nation, known as the "New Culture Movement."
Military Regions. Major areas of military administration with garrison headquarters in the cities of Beijing, Chengdu, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Kunming, Lanzhou, Nanjing, Shenyang, Urumqi, Jinan, and Wuhan (11 regions in all).
Most-Favored Nation (MFN). An agreement in which two coun-tries promise to extend to each other the same trading terms that either of them grants to any other countries. That is, each nation that is party to the agreement will be treated in the same way as the nation "most favored" by the other party. The United States extended MFN status to China in 1980, which had the effect of greatly reducing the tariffs imposed on Chinese goods exported to the U.S. (especially textiles). In the aftermath of Tiananmen, the U.S. Congress and President George Bush became locked in an annual battle over whether China's MFN status should be renewed: Many members of Congress believed that human rights abuses by the PRC warranted revocation, while Bush ar-gued that change in China was best promoted by maintaining trade and other kinds of Sino-American interchange. President Bill Clinton renewed China's MFN status for one year in June 1993, but warned that future renewals would depend on im-provement in China's human rights record. The following year Clinton "delinked" trade and human rights, leading to an uncon-ditional renewal of China's MFN status thereafter.
Municipalities. Four major cities (Beijing, Chongqing, Shanghai and Tianjin) directly under the central government rather than under provincial jurisdiction.
National Minorities. China recognizes over fifty national minorities, among which the most numerous are the Zhuang people, the Hui (Chinese Muslims), the Uighurs, the Yi, Tibetans, Miao, Manchus and Mongolians. In areas inhabited predominantly by one or more of these minorities, autonomous regions (geographically equivalent to provinces, five in number) or autonomous sub-units (e.g., autonomous counties) exercise administrative jurisdiction. These autonomous areas are politically and economically integrated, but generally given comparatively wide latitude in cultural matters, such as preservation of local customs, clothing, dialects or languages, etc. The Chinese often celebrate their national minorities in cultural performances, even though the minorities constitute only about 7% of China's total population. In fact, most members of the so-called Han Chinese majority (c. 93% of the population) look down upon minority peoples.
National Party Congress. The highest level congress of the Chinese Communist Party, indirectly elected by representatives of lower level congresses once every five years. The 2,000 or so members of the National Party Congress elect their "leading body," the Central Committee, which, in turn, elects its own Political Bureau (Politburo) and Standing Committee. The Standing Committee, usually composed of about a half-dozen members, is the highest permanant organ of the CCP. The 15th National Party Congress was convened in the Fall of 1997.
National People's Congress (NPC). The national legislature of the PRC, which, according to the 1982 Constitution, is "the highest organ of state power" in China. The NPC consists of nearly 3,000 delegates elected for five-year terms by lower-level people's congresses; it meets annually for about two weeks. The NPC makes laws, amends the State Constitution, decides on domestic and foreign policy, elects the president and vice president of the PRC, the State Council, the Central Military Commission, and the government's top judicial officials. When the NPC is not in ses-sion, its business is carried out by a Standing Com-mittee (c. 130 members), which convenes the yearly sessions of the Congress and supervises all aspects of civil administration, including judicial affairs. Although it still operates under the watchful eye of the Chinese Communist Party, the NPC has become increasingly active and influential as a policymaking body and a forum for debate.
Neighborhood Committees. The primary unit of local control and social service in urban areas. A "self-governing" organization, whose members are elected directly by local residents, the committee is composed of between a half dozen and as many as eighteen members, who serve one-year terms, usually without pay. Below the Neighborhood Committees are Mediation Committees, Security Committees, and Neighborhood Groups. Above are the regular organs of urban administration, including Neighborhood Agencies and District People's Governments. Staffed mostly by retired urban workers, they are under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party branches of urban areas. Their main functions are to implement the party's direc-tives and to enforce the government's rules on public health, fam-ily planning, and public safety. Their exact legal status in the Chinese constitution is not clearly specified.
Open Policy. A development strategy adopted in 1978 by the Chinese government, based on active participation in the world market. Under this policy, the government has sought to in-crease foreign trade, encourage technology transfer, and promote direct foreign investment in China. It has also tried to become more active in international organizations, and to encour-age study and training abroad. The "Open Policy" has also led to greater openness to outside cultural influences.
Party Congress. See National Party Congress.
Peng Zhen (b. 1902). One of the few surviving party "elders." Peng was party chief in Beijing Municipality before he was purged as a "capitalist roader" during the Cultural Revolution. He was rehabilitated in 1979 after Deng Xiaoping's consolida-tion of power and thereafter became head of the National People's Congress, a post that he held until 1987.
People's Armed Police. An armed component of the civil-ian police under the supervision of the Ministry of Public Secu-rity, with particular responsibility for guarding public buildings and officials and, when needed, quelling serious social unrest. It was created from units of the People's Liberation Army in 1983 and had more than half-a-million troops as of the mid-1990s.
People's Communes. See Communes.
People's Congresses. A system of supervisory and (to a limited extent) policymaking state (as opposed to party) organs at various levels of the PRC's political system. Deputies to lower level people's con-gresses (e.g., county level) are directly elected by their constituents, whereas those at higher levels (e.g., provinces and municipalities) are indirectly elected by the people's congresses at the next lowest level. See also National Party Congress.
People's Courts. see Supreme People's Court
People's Daily. The official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. It is dis-tributed nationally and has a circulation of over 5 million. Arti-cles in the People's Daily reflect official party policy, and editorials and commentaries are often used to publicize authoritative pro-nouncements of the party leadership.
People's Liberation Army (PLA). This term refers to all branches of the Chinese military service. The majority of these troops are land forces, dressed in green uniforms. The navy wears blue uniforms; the air force, green and blue uniforms. Presently, the strength of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is estimated at well over 3 million men and women. Although China has a conscription law, the majority of military personnel enlist for periods of from two to six years. In the past, the PLA has enjoyed great prestige, and has performed political, social and economic tasks, as well as military ones. Now, the political role of the PLA has diminished somewhat, as has its prestige. It still performs a variety of non-military tasks, however, and helps sustain itself through economic activities of various sorts. The major policy-making organ of the PLA is the Military Affairs Commission of the CCP Central Committee.
People's Procuratorates. see Supreme People's Procuratorate
People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded by the CCP under the leadership of Mao Zedong on October 1, 1949, following the communist victory over the Guomindang in the Chinese civil war.
Politburo. Elected by the Central Committee, the Politburo (or Political Bureau) handles the daily running of the CCP and makes the party's major policy decisions. Greatest power re-sides in its seven-member Standing Committee.
Procuratorate. A nationwide system of state organizations charged with overseeing the ad-ministration of justice in the Chinese legal system. The pro-curatorate has a wide range of functions, including investigating criminal cases, issuing indictments, and serving in the courts as both public prosecutor and public defender. It also acts as a legal check on bureaucratic corruption and police abuse. It is guaranteed independence from outside interference in the PRC Constitution, but, like all state organs, is ultimately under the control of the CCP.
Production Brigade. Under the old (pre-1980s) system of collective land ownership, each commune was divided into a certain number of geographically based production brigades, each of which, in turn, was subdivided into several production teams. Each production team, numbering from several dozen to several hundred households, was the basic accounting unit for the commune.
Production Responsibility System. See Responsibility System.
Production Team. See Production Brigade.
Provinces. China presently has 23 provinces, including Taiwan. The largest in population is Sichuan (often spelled Szechwan in the West), with well over a hundred million people; the smallest in population is Qinghai (Tsinghai), with about four million people. The total population of China has been estimated at over one billion two hundred million.
Public Security Bureau (PSB). China's principal law enforce-ment organization, with branches throughout the country that operate under the supervision of the Ministry of Public Security. The PSB is responsible for the maintenance of law and order, the investigation of crimes, and the surveillance of any Chinese citizens (or foreigners) in the PRC suspected of being threats to state security. The Ministry of Public Security maintains its own sys-tem of labor reform camps.
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP). An increasingly popular method of comparing production and income levels of different nations. PPP looks at what it actually costs to buy similar goods (e.g., food, housing) in various countries to determine the real purchasing power of local currencies. Many economists feel that this gives a more accurate comparison of standards of living around the world than the more traditional method of calculating gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in U.S. dollars based on official international exchange rates. For example, according to Asiaweek (June 20, 1997), China's exchange-rate-based GDP per capita in in 1996 was only $655, whereas its PPP-based per capita product was $2,900.
Qiao Shi (b. 1924). Former head of the Public Security Bureau and a member of the Politburo's Standing Commit-tee from 1987 to 1997. Qiao became chairman of the National People's Congress in March 1993, but he retired from both his NPC chairmanship and his party positions in the fall of 1997--apparently after an unsuccessful power struggle with Jiang Zemin.
Red versus Expert. A conflict during the Cultural Revolution between those who emphasized ideology ("redness") and those who emphasized expertise. During the Cultural Revolution, "red" prevailed over "expert," but now, expertise is esteemed over ideology. Ideally, of course, a person should be both "red" and "expert."
Renmin Ribao. See People's Daily.
Republic of China (ROC). The government established by Sun Yat-sen in 1912 after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. The government of the ROC and its ruling party, the Guomindang, moved to Taiwan in 1949 following the communist victory in the Chinese civil war. The ROC was rec-ognized as the official government of China by the United States until January 1, 1979, when American diplomatic recognition was switched to the PRC.
Responsibility System. In the countryside, peasants contract with local township (xiang) authorities to provide a fixed quantity of produce to be sold to the state at the official price. Anything over the agreed upon volume may be sold on the free market, and the peasant keeps the profit. This basic system, which has several variants, has also been extended to industry and other sectors of the Chinese economy, where productivity beyond fixed quotas brings financial rewards.
Rong Yiren (b. 1916). Known as the "red capitalist" because of his great success as a business executive and his support of government policies. Rong, who comes from a family of prominent pre-revolutionary industrialists, is currently the vice president of the PRC, the first noncommunist to hold such a high state position.
Secretariat. The organization responsible for administering the day-to-day affairs of the CCP and for supervising government agencies to make certain that they are working in accordance with party policy.
Seeking Truth From Facts. A pragmatic slogan of the 1980's, contrasted with the dogmatism of the Cultural Revolution period (sometimes called "whateverism"--i.e. whatever Mao said in the past is true and inviolable).
Shanghai Communique. The official statement issued by China and the United States on February 27, 1972, at the conclusion of U.S. president Richard Nixon's historic visit to the PRC. The communique set in motion the normalization of Sino-American relations after decades of cold war hostility and estrangement. In the communique, the PRC affirmed that the question of Tai-wan was "China's internal affair," while the U.S. government acknowledged that "it does not challenge" the position that "there is but one China and that Taiwan is a part of China." The United States also noted its interest in a "peaceful settlement" of the Taiwan issue.
Special Economic Zones (SEZ). There are presently five major zones, all located in the south and southeast of China. Of these, the largest is in the area of Shenzhen, adjacent to Hong Kong. The most significant feature of the Special Economic Zones is their administrative flexibility. Foreign enterprises in these areas have the right to manage themselves, for example, as long as they observe Chinese laws and regulations. Joint ventures have similar freedom, and all enterprises are allowed to establish independant wage policies. With some exceptions, imports and exports in the zones are exempt from customs duties and market conditions prevail. In addition to these major zones, other localities have made similar economic arrangements.
State Council. The State Council functions like a cabinet. It is headed by a Premier, who is appointed by the National People's Congress on the recommendation of the CCP. The Premier recommends the ministers of the State Council to the NPC. There are presently over 30 ministries (e.g. Defense, Civil Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Food, Finance, Education, Culture, Public Health, Public Security, Justice, and a wide variety of agricultural and industrial ministries), as well as a number of bureaus and commissions.
State-Owned Enterprises. Generally large-scale industries and commercial undertakings owned by "the whole people."
Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925). A medical doctor (partly educated in Hawaii) who was the leader of the 1911 Revolution that over-threw China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing. Sun was the first president of the Republic of China (ROC), a position he held for a little more than a month before being replaced by a warlord. His "Three Principles of the People" (nationalism, democracy, and the people's livelihood) remain the core of the ideology of the Guomindang, which Sun founded in 1912.
Supreme People's Court. The Supreme People's Court is the highest Chinese judicial organ. It supervises the administration of justice by lower level courts, but it does not interpret the State Constitution. This responsibility falls to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, which supervises the work of both the Supreme People's Court and the Supreme People's Procuratorate. The hierarchy of People's Courts at various levels is paralleled by People's Procuratorates. The procuratorates stand in relation to the courts in roughly the same way as the district attorney's office stands in relation to the courts in the American judicial system. At the highest level, the Supreme People's Procuratorate performs a role somewhat like the U.S. Attorney General's office. The president of the Supreme People's Court is appointed by the National People's Congress.
Taiwan. A province of China; also the Republic of China (ROC). Many residents on Taiwan consider themselves to be more "Taiwanese" than "Chinese"--although virtually all of them are descended from Mainlanders. Their primary dialect, sometimes called "native Taiwanese," is a form of Chinese called Minnan hua. A vigorous "independent Taiwan" movement has developed on the island over the last decade or so. It has been championed by a number of prominent politicians, including leaders of the powerful Democratic Progressive Party (DPP).
Ten Major Relationships. Ten contradictions, identified by Mao in a 1956 speech, which continue to be cited by the current pragmatic leadership as problem areas. Most of the contradictions are non-antagonistic. See Contradictions.
Three Gorges Dam. A project currently under construction on the Yangzi River in China's Hubei Province. When completed in the year 2009, it will be the world's largest dam and hydroelec-tric generating plant. The Chinese government claims that the project will provide the energy needed for the region's eco-nomic development and help control flooding along the Yangzi. Critics claim that the dam will seriously harm one of China's most beautiful and environmentally fragile areas and adversely affect the more than one million people who will have to be relocated. They also object to the government's heavy-handed censoring of opponents of the dam.
Three Major Relationships. Refers to the gap between workers and peasants, city and countryside, and mental and manual labor (all non-antagonistic contradictions which the Chinese are trying to resolve).
Tiananmen. Literally the "Gate of Heavenly Peace." It serves as the principal entrance to the imperial palace (the Forbidden City) in Beijing--home to China's emperors for more than five centuries prior to the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911. Tianan-men Square, to the south of the palace, is the largest (100 acres) public square in the world. Mao Zedong declared the founding of the People's Republic on October 1, 1949, from a rostrum on the gate. During the Cultural Revolution, more than a million Red Guards gathered on the Square to be greeted by Chairman Mao. In 1976 the Square was the site of mass protests against the radical Gang of Four (precipitated by the public commemoration of Premier Zhou Enlai's death) and of a huge memorial meeting held after Mao's death. In the spring of 1989 the square became the focal point for massive public protests that culminated in the bloody repression of June 4-5.
Tibet. Officially, an "autonomous region" of the People's Re-public of China, but, in fact, under the control of the Chinese state and the CCP. Tibet has been subject to a certain measure of Chinese authority since the 18th century, but it achieved a good deal of independence from about 1913 until 1950, when it was incorpo-rated into the PRC. An abortive revolt against Chinese domina-tion in 1959 led to a massive invasion and continued military occupation by the PLA. The CCP claims to have liberated Tibet from a cruel feudal system and to have promoted economic development in the area, while Tibetan nationalists accuse China of destroying the indigenous culture and turning Tibet into a dumping ground for its waste products. Sporadic demonstrations for independence have been quashed by the Chinese authorities.
Township and Village Enterprises. Nonagricultural businesses, which operate largely according to market forces outside of the state plan, that are owned and run by local-level governments.
Urban Neighborhood Committees. See Neighborhood Committees.
Wan Li (b. 1916). Now retired high-ranking CCP leader who has held many important government and party posts, including vice-premier in charge of agriculture and member of the party Secretariat. He also served as head of the National People's Con-gress from 1987 to 1993.
Wei Jingsheng (b. 1950). China's best-known and most persis-tent dissident. Wei was an electrician at the Beijing Zoo who rose to prominence because of a bold essay calling for extensive political reform that he wrote during the 1978-79 Democracy Wall movement. In 1979, he was sentenced to 15 years in prison for allegedly giving state secrets to foreigners. He was released in 1993 and almost immediately began criticizing the govern-ment for its human rights abuses. After being detained several times, Wei was formally arrested in November 1995 and a month later sentenced to 14 years in prison for sedition. He was, however, released from prison for medical treatment in the United States in mid-November of 1997, where he remains.
World Trade Organization (WTO). Established on January 1, 1995, as the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT--the multilateral accord based on principles of free trade and the market economy that had governed interna-tional commerce since 1947). The WTO is somewhat more ex-pansive in scope than its predecessor, but like the GATT, its basic purpose is to promote nondiscriminatory trade and to reduce import tariffs and other barriers to global commerce. It also pro-vides a forum for the resolution of trade disputes. To join the WTO, a country must agree to abide by its free trade and free market principles, be certified as doing so by the WTO, and be approved by two-thirds of the existing members. As of mid-1996, there were 123 members of the WTO, not including China, which has applied for membership.
Yan'an. An area of China's Shaanxi province (in the northwestern part of the PRC) that became the headquarters of the Chinese Communist Party in 1935, after its historic 6,000-mile Long March to escape annihilation by Guomindang forces led by Chiang Kai-shek. Yan'an remained the CCP's main base throughout World War II and served as the focal point for communist-led resis-tance to the Japanese in northern China. It was at Yan'an that Mao Zedong fully consolidated his political and ideological dominance of the CCP.
Zhao Ziyang (b. 1919). Premier of the State Council from 1980 until his appointment in 1987 as General Secretary of the CCP. A trusted colleague and protege of Deng Xiaoping, Zhao built a reputation at home and abroad as a capable technocratic leader and a chief architect of the post-Mao reform program. He fell from power during the democracy demonstrations in the spring of 1989 for being too sympathetic to the students and for opposing the use of force to suppress the protests.
Zhu Rongji (b. 1928). Member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee and vice-premier of the PRC. A former mayor and party chief of Shanghai who was trained as an electrical engi-neer, he has been given great credit for presiding over that city's economic revitalization in the 1980s. He is a strong proponent of market reforms and is often called China's "economic czar" be-cause of his central role in economic policymaking.